Historically, education has played a vital role in identity formation, especially when looking at minority groups. Group threat theory (Stephen & Stephen, 2000) suggests that minority communities can feel threatened by the majority, resulting in stronger in-group identification (Lazëri & Coenders, 2022). Similarly, realistic group conflict theory argues that competition with the majority heightens in-group solidarity and identity formation for minority communities (Everett, 2018). Both theories highlight that minority groups often turn inward to protect their identity when experiencing external pressure. In this blog post, I will explore the role of supplementary schools in developing Muslim identities in London and their importance to the Muslim community.

In the UK, particularly in London which has much larger Muslim population than other parts of the UK (see 2021 Census data), the Muslim community is one such minority group. Sociopolitical tensions, exacerbated by the recent far-right riots (see for example this BBC News Online article), might have renewed a sense of marginalisation. This perceived threat to their religious and cultural identity has encouraged the community to seek ways of preserving their identity. Muslims in London, like other religious minorities, prioritise the transmission of Islamic values to the next generation (Azmi et al., 2020). Consequently, they look for various ways to develop their religious identity, including education.

Supplementary schools

Some Muslim communities in London, have turned to supplementary schools as a means of teaching religious and cultural values, as well as to teach their mother language to their children. These schools, typically held on weekends, provide instruction in Islamic studies, offering Muslim families a way to reinforce their children’s religious identity. According to the government, supplementary schools are not considered regular schools and therefore do not have to register with Ofsted. Moreover, although the Department for Education is concerned about the welfare and safety of children in such schools, there is no mention of educational requirements or curriculum inspection (see DfE, 2020). Similarly, some independent organisations such as the National Resource Centre for Supplementary Education (NRCSE) provide guidelines for safeguarding and best practices, without mentioning any requirements in terms of curricula. As a result, these schools appear to have the freedom to teach the curriculum they find suitable, without referring to an official governing body.

‘In the case of Muslims in London, the establishment of supplementary schools represents a collective effort to protect their religious identity in the face of perceived external challenges.’

Supplementary schools such as Al-Noor and The Qube focus specifically on religious and cultural education. Al-Noor, for example, emphasises raising the next Muslim generation by teaching Arabic and Islamic studies. The Qube takes a similar approach, with the explicit goal of helping Muslim children build confidence in their religious identity. By providing a space where Muslim children can learn about their faith in a supportive environment, these schools help maintain a sense of community.

Families’ attitudes

A series of interviews with Muslim families were conducted by The Qube in summer 2020 regarding their children’s identity construction. Families expressed various challenges including inferiority complex, not fitting in, and lack of friends and role models. These findings resonate with group threat theory (Schlueter & Scheepers, 2010), which posits that minority communities often create their own spaces to preserve identity when they feel threatened by the larger society. Specifically, some parents have expressed ‘concerns whether their daughters could carry on with their religious practices while living in the UK and be confident’, in addition to concerns regarding ‘fitting in the society’. As Muslims in London face increasing pressures from the wider societal context, supplementary schools have become a key tool for transmitting religious values.

The creation of supplementary schools also aligns with realistic group conflict theory (Everett, 2018). The theory suggests that competition or conflict between minority and majority groups leads to increased in-group solidarity. In the case of Muslims in London, the establishment of supplementary schools represents a collective effort to protect their religious identity in the face of perceived external challenges.

However, since students enrolled in supplementary schools are also enrolled in mainstream schools in London, it is important to explore the possible ways of communication and collaboration between the two schools to support identity formation and broader societal integration.

References

Azmi, M. N. L., Isyaku, H., Ali, E. M. T. E., Abdullah, A. T. H., Yah@Alias, M. H., Anas, M., & Suhaimi, N. I. (2020). Teachers’ perceptions of Islamic self-identity formation through language learning among students in selected religious secondary schools. International Journal of Society, Culture and Language, 8(1), 82–91. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3573489

Department for Education [DfE]. (2020). Out-of-school settings (OOSS) voluntary safeguarding code of practice: Government consultation response. https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/out-of-school-settings-voluntary-safeguarding-code-of-practice/outcome/out-of-school-settings-ooss-voluntary-safeguarding-code-of-practice-government-consultation-response

Everett, H. (2018). Faith schools, tolerance and diversity. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69566-2

Lazëri, M., & Coenders, M. (2022). Dutch national identity in a majority-minority context: When the dominant group becomes a local minority. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 49(9), 2129–2153. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2022.2104698

Schlueter, E., & Scheepers, P. (2010). The relationship between outgroup size and anti-outgroup attitudes: A theoretical synthesis and empirical test of group threat- and intergroup contact theory. Social Science Research, 39(2), 285–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.07.006

Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (2000). An integrated threat theory of prejudice. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination (pp. 23–45). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Warminska, K. (2001). Identity formation in the majority-minority relations. Ethnologia Europaea, 134(134), 209–220.