The existing research and proposal questions

Homework is a self-regulated learning (SRL) activity that constitutes a large proportion of learning time. In mathematics education, studies have shown evidence supporting the nonlinear relationship between mathematics homework time and mathematics achievement (Chin et al., 2020), yet the relationship might be heterogeneous under different levels of motivation. Using latent profile analysis, Flunger et al. (2015) identified two homework styles relating to high achievement, labeled ‘high-effort learner’ (with long homework time) and ‘fast learner’ (with short homework time); the latter demonstrated an efficient homework style.

Several SRL motivational factors may contribute to improving homework efficiency. For example, Xu (2022) revealed the role of interest and favourability in compensating for the achievement gap from insufficient homework time. Fuelled by motivational factors, students achieved the same within a shorter homework time. Chinese students are generally known as ‘high-effort learners’. Chinese students performed excellently in mathematics (OECD, 2019). However, their high achievement comes with the longest homework time, with an average of 13.8 hours per week (Shanghai PISA Team, 2014). Such a time-consuming homework style places an enormous academic burden on students and may contribute to physical and psychological exhaustion, leading to a decline in academic performance (Cooper, 2007). This raised the question of whether a continual extension of mathematics homework time is indeed a requisite for attaining academic improvement. If not, is there an optimal time that maximises achievement? Moreover, what motivational variables work to shorten this optimal time, ultimately transitioning students from ‘high-effort learners’ to ‘fast learners’?

‘Is there an optimal time that maximises achievement? Moreover, what motivational variables work to shorten this optimal time, ultimately transitioning students from “high-effort learners” to “fast learners”?’

Methods

Our study recruited 2,440 students (47.3 per cent female) in Grade 8 (the mean age was 14.27 years) from Eastern China in 2018. Students’ mathematics achievement was measured by a self-developed test. Variables of mathematics homework time, mathematics confidence, interest and anxiety were self-reported by students in the questionnaire. Scales of mathematics confidence, interest and anxiety were adapted from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) (OECD, 2013).

Using generalised propensity score (GPS) analysis with Stata 13.0, we estimated the relationship between mathematics homework time and mathematics achievement. After that, based on the scores of mathematics confidence, interest and anxiety, students were divided into three groups from low to high levels using the first quartile and the third quartile as the boundaries. The relationship between homework time and achievement was estimated in three groups respectively to explore whether the variable of mathematics confidence, interest or anxiety influence this relationship.

Findings and implications

Our findings highlighted an ‘inverted-U’ effect of mathematics homework time on mathematics achievement. The optimal duration was 45 minutes, at which time the benefit of homework was maximised. The identification of the optimal homework time provides guidance for teachers to make decisions in homework assignments. It is noteworthy that students’ self-reported homework time may be biased, and the actual optimal homework time might be longer than 45 minutes. Future studies could include converging data points to triangulate students’ self-reported homework time with that reported by parents or teachers.

Moreover, this homework time–achievement relationship was influenced by students’ mathematics interests. Increasing mathematics interest advanced the inflection point from 45 minutes to 35 minutes. It indicated that mathematics homework time alone did not adequately explain variations in achievement but rather interacted with mathematics interest. The improvement of mathematics interests may be an effective way to help students perform better in a shorter time. It is suggested that teachers can employ constructive teaching practices or set interactive learning environments to arouse students’ interest in mathematics, thereby encouraging active participation in mathematics-related tasks.

This blog post relates to a paper presented at the BERA Conference 2024 and WERA Focal Meeting on Monday 9 September at 12:45pm. Find out more by searching the conference programme here.

References

Chin, J. M-C., Lin, H-C., & Chen, C-W. (2020). Homework and learning achievements: How much homework is enough? Educational Studies, 48(3), 408–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1766423

Cooper, H. (2007). The battle over homework: Common ground for administrators, teachers, and parents (3rd ed.). Corwin Press.

Flunger, B., Trautwein, U., Nagengast, B., Lüdtke, Oliver, Niggli, A., & Schnyder, I. (2015). The Janus-faced nature of time spent on homework: Using latent profile analyses to predict academic achievement over a school year. Learning and Instruction, 39, 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.05.008

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2013). PISA 2012 assessment and analytical framework: Mathematics, reading, science, problem solving and financial literacy. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264190511-en

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2019). PISA 2018 results: Combined executive summaries volume I, II & III. https://www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/pisa/pisa-publications.html

Shanghai PISA Team. (2014). Quality and equity: The overview of PISA 2012 results of Shanghai. Shanghai Educational Publishing House.

Xu, J. (2022). A latent profile analysis of homework time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability: Implications for homework effort, completion, and math achievement. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 38, 751–775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-022-00627-8